Fees Under $0.10 Everywhere. So What Separates the L2s?

The 2026 L2 Landscape: $48B TVL and 73 Active Rollups

The Ethereum Layer 2 ecosystem entered 2026 as a mature, high-stakes competitive market: 73 active rollups collectively securing more than $48 billion in total value locked (TVL) — roughly double the combined figure recorded in early 2025, according to Coin Bureau and eco.com. Arbitrum One holds the dominant position with $13.8–16.9 billion in TVL, representing 40–44% of total L2 market share, while Base ranks second at $10.7–11.2 billion — a growth trajectory widely cited as the fastest 18-month TVL expansion in L2 history. Together, Arbitrum and Base account for roughly 77% of all L2 DeFi liquidity. The March 2024 Dencun upgrade (EIP-4844) slashed L2 data-posting costs by 80–90% through blob transactions, compressing per-transaction fees below $0.10 across every major network and permanently removing cost as the primary competitive differentiator. In 2026, the three criteria that meaningfully separate one network from another are security stage, ecosystem depth, and use-case fit — not fees.

Quick Answer: The best Ethereum L2 in 2026 depends on your strategy. Arbitrum One leads on DeFi TVL ($13.8–16.9B) and decentralization (Stage 1, fully permissionless fraud proofs). Base leads on throughput (89 TPS) and daily user volume (382,500 DAU). Post-Dencun fees are sub-$0.10 across all major networks — security stage and liquidity depth now matter more than transaction cost.

The market's composition has grown substantially more stratified over the past 18 months. OP Mainnet holds approximately $5.6 billion in TVL and anchors the Optimism Superchain — a modular framework that also powers Base and World Chain. zkSync Era ($4.1B) and Linea ($3.4B) represent the ZK rollup segment's institutional ambitions, while Scroll ($2.1B), World Chain ($1.8B), and Starknet ($1.5B) round out the competitive field, according to DeFiLlama. Total addressable L2 liquidity has nearly doubled in a year, but that growth is concentrating — smaller rollups are competing for marginal TVL against ecosystems with deep developer tooling and strong user-distribution advantages that compound over time.

Understanding this landscape requires moving beyond simple fee comparisons. The Dencun upgrade's 80–90% fee reduction has made per-transaction costs largely irrelevant for all but the most micro-transaction-intensive use cases. The relevant questions for 2026 are: how decentralized is the network's trust model, how deep is the DeFi protocol roster, and which chain architecture — optimistic fraud proofs or ZK validity proofs — aligns with your specific application requirements? Each of these dimensions produces meaningfully different answers for different trader and builder profiles.

Security Stage Rankings: The Metric That Defines Trust in 2026

Security stage — as classified by the L2BEAT framework — is the single most consequential differentiator in the 2026 L2 market. Stage 0 is defined as networks that still rely on trusted operators who retain unilateral authority to push smart contract upgrades, meaning users must trust that the operating team behaves honestly and does not introduce malicious code. Stage 1 networks have permissionless fraud proofs (for optimistic rollups) or validity proofs (for ZK rollups) live in production: protocol correctness is mathematically enforced rather than socially assumed, and any upgrade must pass through a security council with defined constraints rather than being pushed unilaterally. Stage 2, the endpoint of full decentralization, eliminates all trusted operator assumptions entirely. As of May 2026, no major L2 has reached Stage 2 — but Stage 1 has become the minimum bar that sophisticated DeFi participants demand before deploying significant capital, cleanly dividing the market into two tiers with meaningfully different risk profiles.

"Stage 1 represents a fundamental shift in trust assumptions. Permissionless proofs mean users no longer rely on operators choosing to behave honestly — the mathematics enforces correctness. For any substantial capital position, Stage 1 is the minimum viable security threshold we recommend." — L2BEAT Research Framework (source: Coin Bureau Analysis, 2026)

Among major networks, Arbitrum One, Base, OP Mainnet, Starknet, and Scroll have all confirmed Stage 1 status — meaning permissionless proofs are live and verifiable on-chain, according to eco.com's 2026 L2 comparison. zkSync Era and Linea remain at Stage 0: both networks depend on trusted multisig governance for contract upgrades, representing a real — if bounded — trust assumption for users holding meaningful positions on those chains.

Arbitrum One occupies a distinct position within the Stage 1 cohort. It is the only major optimistic rollup network with fully permissionless fraud proofs in production — meaning any party can submit a fraud proof to challenge an invalid state transition without requiring operator permission. This is materially different from other Stage 1 optimistic rollups where fraud proofs are live but upgrade powers remain with security council multisigs rather than being fully open to any participant. For high-value DeFi positions, this distinction defines how much implicit trust is extended to the underlying operating team versus the protocol's cryptographic guarantees — a factor that becomes more significant as deployed capital grows.

The Stage 0 risk is concrete, not merely theoretical. A Stage 0 network's operating team could, in principle, push a contract upgrade that adversely affects user funds. This is not a prediction of misconduct from any specific team — Consensys (Linea) and Matter Labs (zkSync Era) are credible organizations with strong reputations in the ecosystem — but it represents a trust assumption that rigorous traders should account for explicitly, particularly as TVL on these networks scales into the billions.

Fee Reality Post-Dencun: What You Actually Pay Per Transaction

Post-Dencun fees on Ethereum L2 networks are so compressed that differences between networks are measured in cents — and frequently in fractions of cents for standard transaction types. EIP-4844, activated in March 2024, introduced blob transactions that decouple L2 data-posting from Ethereum's regular calldata market, reducing data costs by 80–90% across all major rollups, according to BlockEden's 2026 Layer 2 analysis. Ethereum mainnet base fees fell from 7.141 gwei in January 2025 to approximately 0.50 gwei by January 2026 — a 93% decline — amplifying savings across every rollup simultaneously. For active retail traders executing multiple transactions per day, the practical implication is clear: selecting a network based on fees alone is no longer a rational approach in 2026. Liquidity depth and security stage now produce far more material differences in actual trading outcomes than the sub-$0.10 fee differentials separating any two major networks.

The raw numbers confirm the convergence. Median per-transaction fees in Q1–Q2 2026 show Base at $0.02 and OP Mainnet at $0.03 at the low end, with Arbitrum One at $0.04, zkSync Era at $0.05, and Scroll at $0.06 — a range of just four cents between the cheapest and most expensive major network, per eco.com's fee tracking data. Average fees recorded by Coin Bureau are even more compressed: OP Mainnet averages $0.0007 per transaction, Arbitrum One $0.0044, Starknet $0.0102, and Base $0.0161 — all well within noise for any position of meaningful size.

The practical decision framework for fee-conscious traders is straightforward. For simple swaps and token transfers under $1,000 in value, every major L2 is inexpensive enough that the fee gap between networks is immaterial to returns. For complex multi-step DeFi strategies — leveraged positions, yield farming loops, or liquidity provision with frequent rebalancing — the difference between choosing Base over Scroll amounts to a few dollars per week at most. That marginal saving is routinely dominated by factors like slippage on illiquid pairs, protocol depth, and the trust assumptions baked into lower-stage networks. Treat fees as a tiebreaker after evaluating security stage and liquidity depth.

Throughput and Real User Adoption: Who Is Actually Being Used

Throughput and user activity metrics in 2026 reveal a clear hierarchy, with Base dominating on both dimensions among all Ethereum L2 networks. Base achieved 89 transactions per second (TPS) at peak throughput, 12.89 million daily transactions, and 382,500 daily active users as of February 2026 — metrics driven largely by Coinbase's consumer distribution infrastructure and its direct integration with Coinbase's verified user base, according to eco.com. Arbitrum One runs a strong second on transaction volume at 4.30 million daily transactions and 129,000 daily active users, sustaining 40–62 TPS via its Nitro stack architecture. OP Mainnet records 2.35 million daily transactions and 19,300 active users at 34 TPS. Among ZK rollups, zkSync Era trails significantly — approximately 19,600 daily transactions and 4,000 daily active users at 28 TPS peak — reflecting the throughput constraint imposed by ZK proof-generation overhead that continues to limit real-time transaction capacity relative to optimistic rollup peers.

Base's user volume advantage is structural, not incidental. Coinbase's consumer application provides frictionless onboarding directly to Base, meaning new users arrive with funded wallets and no need to navigate bridge interfaces or manage gas tokens across networks. This distribution flywheel drove Base from $2.1 billion in TVL at the start of 2025 to $10.7–11.2 billion by April 2026 — a growth rate no other L2 has matched. For consumer-facing DeFi applications, social protocols, and low-cost retail trading products, this user density creates compounding network effects that are difficult for any competitor to replicate without equivalent distribution infrastructure in place.

Arbitrum's user metrics, while lower than Base's in raw volume, reflect a structurally different user mix. The 129,000 daily active users on Arbitrum are predominantly DeFi power users engaging with protocols like GMX (the leading perpetuals DEX by open interest), Aave v3, Curve Finance, and Pendle. Average transaction complexity and notional value per user on Arbitrum tends to be substantially higher than Base's broader consumer base — Arbitrum's 4.30 million daily transactions against $13.8–16.9 billion in TVL implies a significantly higher average transaction value than Base's metrics suggest. These are different user populations with different needs, which is precisely why both networks can coexist with strong growth trajectories.

Optimistic vs ZK Architecture: Trade-offs That Still Matter

The choice between optimistic and ZK rollup architecture involves a fundamental trade-off between ecosystem maturity and finality speed — a distinction that remains consequential in 2026 despite significant progress on both sides of the ledger. Optimistic rollups (Arbitrum One, Base, OP Mainnet) assume transaction validity by default and apply a 7-day fraud-proof challenge window before native withdrawals settle to Ethereum mainnet. This design choice prioritizes EVM compatibility and developer familiarity, enabling rapid ecosystem growth and deep protocol integrations that explain the dominant TVL figures in this architecture class. ZK rollups (zkSync Era, Starknet, Linea, Scroll) generate cryptographic validity proofs that mathematically verify each transaction batch, enabling L1 withdrawal finality in under one hour — no challenge period required. The proof-generation overhead currently constrains ZK rollup throughput, explaining the consistent TPS gap visible in real-world data between the two architectures. Optimistic rollups dominate on TVL and ecosystem maturity; ZK rollups offer technically superior finality that is increasingly relevant for institutional settlement requirements, according to Spark.money's Layer 2 comparison.

"Project Dama 2 validates that ZK rollup infrastructure can meet institutional settlement standards. Sub-hour finality backed by cryptographic validity proofs is precisely the settlement guarantee that regulated participants require — and zkSync's architecture delivers it at scale with 24 institutional co-participants." — Deutsche Bank Digital Assets, Project Dama 2 Initiative (source: BlockEden, February 2026)

The 7-day withdrawal window on optimistic rollups is a genuine operational constraint for large capital movements, though third-party bridging protocols substantially reduce its practical impact. Services such as Across Protocol and Hop Exchange resolve cross-chain transfers in under five minutes for a fee of 0.05–0.20%, according to Spark.money. For the vast majority of retail DeFi activity — swapping, lending, and yield farming — the 7-day window is irrelevant, since most users rarely need to move large positions back to Ethereum mainnet on short notice. The constraint becomes operationally significant only when moving multi-million dollar positions where third-party bridge liquidity limits apply or where additional bridge smart contract risk warrants avoidance.

Deutsche Bank's Project Dama 2 is the clearest institutional validation of the ZK architecture thesis available in 2026. The initiative leverages zkSync infrastructure with 24 financial institution participants, demonstrating that enterprise-grade settlement applications require ZK's cryptographic finality model rather than the social trust embedded in optimistic challenge periods. This is meaningful forward-looking signal: as DeFi protocols increasingly intersect with regulated financial infrastructure, ZK rollups' finality model may transition from a technical preference to a compliance-driven requirement. For current retail traders, however, optimistic rollups' ecosystem depth and liquidity remain the dominant practical advantage in day-to-day DeFi execution — a balance that the TPS improvement trajectory in ZK networks will continue to shift over the next 12–18 months.

Use-Case Fit: Which L2 Matches Your DeFi Strategy

No single Ethereum L2 is the right choice for every participant in 2026 — the correct network depends on what you are trying to do, how much capital you are moving, and what trust assumptions you are prepared to accept. For DeFi power users engaged in high-frequency swapping, leveraged yield farming, or complex multi-protocol strategies, Arbitrum One is the defensible recommendation: it offers the deepest DeFi liquidity ($13.8–16.9B TVL), the broadest protocol roster on any L2 (Aave v3, Uniswap v3, GMX, Curve Finance, Pendle), $4.2 billion in stablecoin liquidity across USDC, USDT, DAI, and USDS, and the most decentralized trust model available among major networks, according to eco.com. Arbitrum Stylus, launched in 2024, extended developer tooling to Rust, C++, and WebAssembly — attracting 147 hackathon submissions with 17 selected projects and expanding Arbitrum's developer base well beyond EVM-native teams.

"Base was built to bring the next wave of users onchain, not to compete with Arbitrum on DeFi depth. Coinbase's distribution changes the onboarding equation entirely — users arrive with funded accounts and no friction. That structural advantage is what makes Base's growth trajectory unlike anything the L2 space has seen before." — Base Core Team, Coinbase (source: Phemex L2 Analysis, 2026)

For consumer applications, social protocols, and retail trading products targeting broad user acquisition, Base is the correct platform. Its 89 TPS peak throughput, 382,500 daily active users, ultra-low average fees ($0.0161 per transaction), and Coinbase distribution infrastructure create a user density that no competitor currently matches. The Aerodrome DEX and Morpho lending protocol anchor a fast-growing DeFi ecosystem with $3.9 billion in stablecoin float. For builders targeting mainstream consumer crypto adoption in 2026, Base's inherited distribution flywheel is a structural moat that cannot be replicated through fee optimization or marketing alone.

OP Mainnet's strategic differentiation in 2026 is the Superchain ecosystem, not its standalone performance metrics. The OP Stack powers Base, World Chain, and Zora — meaning builders who want their application to be natively composable across this growing network of chains gain meaningful multi-chain reach by deploying on OP Mainnet. For developers anticipating cross-chain expansion within the Superchain framework, OP Mainnet's shared sequencer infrastructure and Stage 1 security make it the natural entry point. For institutional participants and developers building applications that require fast L1 finality and ZK-native proof systems, zkSync Era and Starknet are the appropriate choices — with the explicit caveat that both networks remain at Stage 0, and that governance risk should inform position sizing and deployment scale until Stage 1 transitions are confirmed on-chain.

Head-to-Head Summary: Arbitrum vs Base vs OP Mainnet vs zkSync Era

Synthesizing data across TVL, security stage, throughput, and user activity produces four distinct L2 profiles for 2026, each with a clear optimal use case and a defined set of trade-offs. Arbitrum One leads on DeFi capital depth with $13.8–16.9 billion in TVL, the most decentralized trust model among major L2s (Stage 1 with fully permissionless fraud proofs), and the broadest protocol roster for serious DeFi participants. Base leads on network activity — 89 TPS, 12.89 million daily transactions, 382,500 daily active users — driven by Coinbase distribution and representing the fastest TVL growth trajectory in L2 history, climbing from $2.1 billion to $10.7–11.2 billion in 18 months. OP Mainnet occupies a distinct niche as the anchor of the Optimism Superchain at approximately $5.6 billion in TVL, providing Stage 1 security and native composability with Base and World Chain for cross-chain builders. zkSync Era offers the fastest L1 finality among major networks via ZK validity proofs, institutional traction through Project Dama 2, and $4.1 billion in TVL — but carries a Stage 0 governance designation that limits its appeal for risk-conscious capital deployment at scale.

The Stage 0 designation for zkSync Era warrants particular attention in any head-to-head context. With $4.1 billion in user assets under a governance model that still permits unilateral operator upgrades, the trust assumption gap between zkSync Era and the Stage 1 networks in this comparison is material — more significant as a risk factor than the network's relatively modest 4,000 daily active user count. Matter Labs has publicly committed to Stage 1 upgrades, and the timeline points to H2 2026, but until those governance changes are confirmed on-chain, the security profile remains in a different category from Arbitrum One, Base, and OP Mainnet.

2026 Outlook: Stage Progressions and the Next L2 Shift

The two governance milestones with the highest impact on the L2 competitive landscape in H2 2026 are zkSync Era's and Linea's respective Stage 1 upgrades. Both networks have committed to achieving permissionless proofs and eliminating unilateral operator upgrade authority, with timelines broadly expected to resolve before year-end — though on-chain confirmation remains pending as of May 2026. If both transitions succeed, the Stage 0 risk caveat currently constraining institutional and sophisticated-retail adoption would be removed, potentially accelerating TVL inflows and narrowing the gap with Stage 1 incumbents. World Chain ($1.8B TVL, 48 TPS), Linea ($3.4B), and Scroll ($2.1B) are the most credible challengers positioned to capture incremental market share if their respective governance milestones are met on schedule, according to BlockEden's comparative analysis.

"ZK proof generation costs are on a clear downward trajectory driven by hardware acceleration and recursive proof systems. The throughput gap between optimistic and ZK rollups is a solvable engineering constraint — by end of 2026, that gap will be materially narrower than it appears in current benchmarks." — L2BEAT Research (source: Spark.money L2 Comparison, 2026)

ZK proof generation costs are declining as hardware acceleration, recursive proof systems, and optimized proving circuits continue to mature. The TPS gap between optimistic and ZK rollups — which currently stands at roughly 61 TPS separating Base (89 TPS) from Starknet (19 TPS) — is expected to narrow significantly before the end of 2026. This shift matters because the primary remaining performance argument for preferring optimistic rollups over ZK alternatives will erode as proof generation becomes cheaper and faster. The finality advantage of ZK rollups is structurally absolute — no 7-day challenge window — and as the throughput disadvantage compresses, ZK networks become increasingly compelling for high-value DeFi use cases that currently favor optimistic rollups primarily for ecosystem depth rather than architecture preference.

L2 consolidation is the broader structural trend defining 2026 and beyond. With 73 active rollups competing for TVL against ecosystems with $10B+ in established liquidity, developer tooling, and user networks, smaller rollups face a compounding disadvantage that is difficult to overcome through fee optimization or marginal feature differentiation. Capital attracts depth, and depth attracts capital — the network effects that established Arbitrum and Base as dominant networks are self-reinforcing. The most credible differentiation paths for emerging networks are governance leadership (achieving Stage 2 before incumbents), niche use-case dominance in specific verticals, or institutional partnerships that bring novel capital rather than competing directly for existing DeFi liquidity pools.

Frequently Asked Questions

Which Ethereum L2 is safest in 2026?

Arbitrum One currently offers the most decentralized trust model among major Ethereum L2 networks. Under the L2BEAT Stage framework, it has achieved Stage 1 with fully permissionless fraud proofs live in production — meaning any participant can challenge an invalid state transition without requiring operator permission. This is meaningfully distinct from other Stage 1 networks like Base and OP Mainnet, where fraud proofs are live but contract upgrade authority remains with security council multisigs. zkSync Era and Linea are still Stage 0 as of May 2026, meaning their respective operating teams retain unilateral upgrade authority over smart contracts — a real trust assumption for large positions, regardless of each team's credibility. No major L2 has reached Stage 2 (full decentralization) yet. For maximum trust confidence with significant capital deployed, Arbitrum One's combination of Stage 1 status and fully permissionless fraud proofs puts it ahead of all other major networks on this dimension.

What is the cheapest L2 for transactions in 2026?

After the March 2024 Dencun upgrade (EIP-4844), all major Ethereum L2 networks operate with median per-transaction fees below $0.10 — making extreme fee minimization a secondary concern for most use cases. Among the leading networks, OP Mainnet averages just $0.0007 per transaction and Arbitrum One averages $0.0044, with Base at $0.0161 and Starknet at $0.0102, according to Coin Bureau tracking data. Median fees in Q1–Q2 2026 show Base at $0.02 and OP Mainnet at $0.03, compared to $0.06 for Scroll at the higher end — a maximum spread of just four cents across the field. Because the gap between the cheapest and most expensive major network is measured in fractions of a cent for average users, fees should function as a final tiebreaker rather than a primary selection criterion. Liquidity depth, security stage, and protocol availability will consistently produce more material differences in actual trading outcomes than the sub-$0.10 fee differentials that separate any two major networks today.

Why does the 7-day withdrawal window on optimistic rollups matter?

The 7-day native withdrawal window exists because optimistic rollups (Arbitrum One, Base, OP Mainnet) require a challenge period during which any party can submit a fraud proof disputing an invalid state transition. During this window, funds moving from the L2 back to Ethereum mainnet via the native bridge are locked while the state is considered final. This constraint matters most for large capital movements where a week-long lock-up creates meaningful opportunity cost or liquidity risk — for instance, when a trader needs to rapidly redeploy capital across chains in response to a market development. For day-to-day DeFi activity — swapping, lending, yield farming — the window is practically irrelevant, since most users never need to move large positions back to Ethereum mainnet on short notice. Third-party bridging services like Across Protocol and Hop Exchange bypass this window entirely, resolving transfers in under five minutes for a fee of 0.05–0.20%. The trade-off is introducing bridge smart contract risk. For sub-$10,000 movements, convenience typically outweighs bridge risk; for multi-million dollar positions, evaluating bridge liquidity limits and audit history is worthwhile before proceeding.

Is Base better than Arbitrum for DeFi in 2026?

It depends on what you are doing. Base is superior for consumer-facing applications, high-volume retail trading, and any protocol where user acquisition and throughput matter more than raw DeFi liquidity depth. Base leads all L2 networks on user activity — 89 TPS peak throughput, 12.89 million daily transactions, and 382,500 daily active users — and Coinbase's distribution creates a structural onboarding advantage no competitor has replicated. Arbitrum One is superior for high-value DeFi strategies that require deep liquidity: $13.8–16.9 billion in TVL, the deepest protocol roster on any L2 (GMX, Aave v3, Uniswap v3, Curve Finance, Pendle), and $4.2 billion in stablecoin liquidity. A trader running complex multi-protocol leveraged strategies will consistently find better execution on Arbitrum due to tighter spreads and deeper order books. Both networks carry Stage 1 security ratings, so the trust assumption difference between them is minimal — the decision primarily comes down to which protocols you need access to and at what position size.

What is L2BEAT security stage and why does it matter?

L2BEAT's Stage 0/1/2 framework measures how decentralized a rollup's trust assumptions are — specifically, how much authority the operating team retains to modify or upgrade the protocol without community consent. Stage 0 means the operating team can push smart contract upgrades unilaterally; users are implicitly trusting that the team does not introduce malicious or exploitative code. Stage 1 means permissionless fraud proofs (for optimistic rollups) or validity proofs (for ZK rollups) are live in production — the protocol's correctness is mathematically enforced, and upgrades must pass through a security council with defined constraints. Stage 2 represents full decentralization with no trusted operator assumptions remaining; no major L2 has reached Stage 2 as of May 2026. The framework matters because a Stage 0 network's team could, in principle, push an upgrade that modifies withdrawal logic or fund handling — a real if currently hypothetical risk for large positions. zkSync Era and Linea's Stage 0 status is therefore a material consideration for risk management, even accounting for each team's credible track record and public commitments to Stage 1 transitions in H2 2026.

What the 2026 L2 Data Actually Tells You

The Ethereum Layer 2 market in 2026 is a segmented ecosystem where different networks hold genuine, durable advantages for specific use cases — not a single race where one network will dominate all others. Arbitrum One's $13.8–16.9 billion in TVL and fully permissionless fraud proof system make it the defensible choice for DeFi power users who need protocol depth and the strongest available decentralization guarantees. Base's 382,500 daily active users and 89 TPS peak reflect real structural advantages in distribution that compound over time and are not easily replicated. OP Mainnet's Superchain strategy represents a credible long-term bet on modular, composable multi-chain infrastructure. And zkSync Era's institutional traction through Project Dama 2 — despite its Stage 0 governance caveat — signals the direction of enterprise blockchain settlement as ZK proof costs continue their downward trajectory.

The post-Dencun fee environment has clarified what actually differentiates these networks: security stage, liquidity depth, throughput, and ecosystem fit. Traders who understand these four dimensions — and select their network accordingly — avoid the common mistake of optimizing for pennies in fee savings while accepting larger, less visible risks in trust assumptions or liquidity slippage on under-capitalized protocols. The most important milestones to monitor in H2 2026 are zkSync Era's and Linea's Stage 1 governance transitions: if those upgrades go live on-chain, two well-capitalized networks will remove their largest remaining liability, and the competitive landscape will shift materially in favor of the ZK architecture segment.

For most active retail traders in 2026, the practical answer is not a single L2 but a clear framework: Arbitrum One for complex DeFi with large positions and maximum decentralization requirements, Base for consumer apps and high-volume retail trading, OP Mainnet when Superchain composability is the primary product requirement, and zkSync Era or Starknet when institutional-grade ZK finality is the specific settlement need. The ecosystem has matured enough that network selection is now a well-defined, data-driven question with defensible answers — not a speculative bet on which chain will "win."

Last updated: 2026-05-15. Data sourced from Coin Bureau, eco.com, DeFiLlama, BlockEden, and Spark.money as of April–May 2026. Security stage classifications reflect L2BEAT framework definitions current at publication date; stage upgrades may occur after publication and should be verified before capital deployment decisions.

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